Political Implications of Commedia dellArte

The Impact of Commedia Dell’Arte Commedia Dell’Arte (CDA) is one of the brightest spots in the history of performing art. It is rather difficult to name a particular year when it appeared, but researchers agree that first records of this type of performing art date back to the middle of the sixteenth century. It has had an enormous impact on the development of the European theatre (Scala Salerno 1967).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Political Implications of Commedia dell’Arte specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The archetypal characters have entered numerous plays to convey certain ideas. Originating from the Italy of the XVI century, Commedia Dell’ Arte has gained several distinct features in the course of its development. According to the historical evidence, the term was copined by the famous Venetian playwright Carlo Godoni (Lennard, 2008, p. 23). The concept of CDA has shaped sinc e then, clearly geared towards the pantomime genre. However, in the XVII century, it was extremely powerful. Molià ¨re, Shakespeare and even modern playwrights resorted to elements of CDA to create their masterpieces. Clearly, theatre is a reflection of the society and, therefore, CDA which was so influential was also a kind of reflection of the society of those days (Henke 2002). It is possible to note that this type of theatrical performance had certain political implications and it often challenged social norms. Scenarios of CDA and Their Implications It is necessary to note that somewhat simplistic scenarios also contributed to certain political implication. This type of performance is characterised by a simple plot where two lovers (who are rich or well-to-do) cannot be together because of some vicious rich people (Richards Richards 1989). At the same time, spectators follow some events of poor people’s lives who try to handle more serious troubles as they can hardly e xist and should focus on ‘careless lives of their masters. Importantly, in the sixteenth century it was a norm to stage events from the life of members of the royal family and noble people. Initially, CDA was not welcome among nobility due to this peculiarity of theatrical performances as they did not find merchants or servants to be worth mentioning in a play (Brockett Ball 2000).Advertising Looking for essay on architecture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More People did not want to see peculiarities of life of ordinary merchants, workers and servants, even though the love story of well-to-do people was central. It is necessary to note that CDA was usually performed during fairs for people who lived in cities (Brockett Ball 2000). Admittedly, city dwellers, merchants, bourgeois, servants, the poor were the first target audience for CDA (Rudlin 1994). However, in the course of time, CDA became widely spread and popular am ong people of all social layers. As has been mentioned above, theatre is only a reflection of the society. However, CDA was also one of the factors that contributed to the change in the social structure and roles played. Bourgeois started playing an important role in the society and they became quite a significant force. Clearly, this empowerment was reflected in CDA as rich people were central characters. Rich people were those who benefited at the end of the performance. Of course, some rich men were often punished, but this punishment was the result of those people being vicious, immoral and not being religious enough. This punishment had nothing to do with an explicit revolt against the rich. At the same time, people were pleased that the rich were punished and saw it as a kind of retribution. It is important to note that these performances had two implications as they were a reflection of the society and a kind of entertainment for people who filled their time with watching the play instead of going to fight those who exploited them. Archetypal Characters in CDA and Their Implications It would be wrong, however, to claim that the CDA was primariy based on two types of characters, i.e., the rich and the poor. As the existing evidence, as well as the researchers conducted on the issue say, there are actually six basic characters used in the CDA genre most often and, therefore, becoming the staples of the genre. To be more exact, these are the so-called â€Å"Sweet Young Thing† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243), a young female character; â€Å"the Miles Glorious† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243), who is, paradoxically, often the antagonist, â€Å"the Old Man† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243), who is also lovesick for the female character, â€Å"the Old Woman† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243), who supervises the female character, â€Å"the Brave Young Man† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243), the knight in shining armor, and â€Å"the Clever Slave† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243), who helps the young woman and the male protagonist â€Å"escape the evil clutches of the Old Man† (Elliott, Geraci Ebner, 2005, 243).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Political Implications of Commedia dell’Arte specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As one can see clearly, with such a cast of characters, it is hard to bend teh rules of the genre and create an original CDA. However, introducing a bit of diversity into the given list, one can create a truly original work, as some of the authors have shown in a very graphic way. One of the most distinctive features of CDA is the use of specific characters which were created on the basis of some archetypal agents within any society. Thus, Pantalone is a rich person who enjoys the top status in the society (Rudlin 1994). Admittedly, this character embodies vices ascribed to the r ich who exploit poor people. Characters that deserve special attention are Pulcinella and Brighella who often perform roles of evil employers who can humiliate poor people and servants (Rudlin 1994). Appearance of such characters and especially the roles they played during the performance can be regarded as a reflection of the shift in the society. The very existence of these characters was a challenge to the social norms that existed at that time. On the one hand, rich people (who were not noble) became central characters and were presented as a powerful force that controlled many people’s lives. This was striking for the nobility of that time. However, this was close to reality as merchants were becoming stronger than nobility. On the other hand, these characters were often punished and mocked at. This was a reflection of people’s attitude towards the rich people. They were hated and despised. At the same time, one of the most loved characters is Arlecchino who is a quick-witted servant who has to survive in the world of the rich (Rudlin 1994). Admittedly, these are the most archetypal characters which reveal the timeless confrontation, i.e. the rich versus the poor. Arlecchino is always hungry (just like poor people), and he has to work for his masters. He solves their problems and he is often punished for nothing (Rudlin 1994). People who watched those performances could recognise themselves easily and could lament over the unfairness of the world or enjoy the small victories of the poor (or sufferings and punishment of the rich).Advertising Looking for essay on architecture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This character can also be regarded as a challenge to the accepted social norms as servants had a very specific role in the Middle Ages. They completed all the necessary tasks but they were often invisible as the nobility perceived the servants as flock, furniture or a shadow that was there when it was needed. However, CDA made everyone see that servants did not only existed but helped their masters immensely and could even punish rich people. Servants were often smart and resourceful. The Use of Lazzi in CDA Apart from the archetypal characters, CDA is also characterised by the use of the so-called lazzi. Lazzi were used to â€Å"enliven a performance when audience interest lagged†¦ to embroider on a situation, or to fill a gap in the action† (Brockett Ball 2000, p. 127). Lazzi were often based on some latest news or gossip (Gordon1983). This part of the performance had a really important impact in the long run. Thus, successful lazzi were often copied and performed by many theatre groups. Therefore, discussion of burning issues was turned in the form of a quarrel or fight. The viewers were passive participants of the discussion and they often adopted this or that standpoint. Any meaningful political or social changes were reflected in CDA and spread all over Europe as this form of performing art was popular in many European countries. Lazzi also challenged social forms that existed in the society. For instance, in lazzi, servants could sometimes revenge on their masters or those who insulted them (Brockett Ball 2000). Of course, in reality, no poor could rebel against the master with impunity. Any attempt of the poor to insult the rich was punished severely. However, this was not the case with CDA. This was a kind of reflection of poor people’s (i.e. the major part of the target audience) aspirations and hidden desires (Fava 2007). Spectators saw some kind of justice and were very pleased that at least some servants could stand up for th emselves. This idea of social justice was present in many performances and it reconciled people with the reality as they were distracted from their burning problems, at least, for some time. Conclusion On balance, it is possible to state that CDA had political implications and challenged the society as it revealed the wrongs of the world in a very grotesque form. Poor people could recognise themselves in the play, enjoy the happy ending and some small victories of the poor (and ‘good’ rich people, i.e. lovers) in the play. The new form also reflected the shift in the society where nobility lost a lot of points and bourgeois became empowered. Apart from this, CDA also challenged some social norms as the viewers were exposed to new trends, which could become some of the factors that had certain impact on the development of the entire society. This form of performing art was one of numerous sources of spreading the latest trends. Therefore, it is difficult to put a price o n CDA as it affected the development of theatre as well as the western society. Reference List Brockett, O Ball, R 2000, The essential theatre, Univeristy of Michigan, Michigan. Elliott, K, Geraci, C, Ebner,D, 2005, Barron’s how to prepare for the SSAT/ISEE, Barron’s Educational Series, Hauppage, NY. Fava, A 2007, The comic mask in the Commedia dell’Arte: actor training, Improvisation, and the Poetics of Survival, Northwestern University Press, Evanston. Gordon, M 1983, The comic routines of Commedia dell’Arte, Hopkins University Press, London. Henke, R 2002 Performance and literature in the Commedia dell’Arte, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Lennard, J, 2008, William Shakespeare: Hamlet, Humanities – EBooks, New York, NY. Richards, K Richards, L 1989 The Commedia dell’Arte: a documentary history, Blackwell, Oxford. Rudlin, J 1994, Commedia dell’Arte: an actor’s handbook, Routledge, London. Scala, F Salerno, H 1967, Scenarios of the Commedia dell’Arte: flaminio scala’s il teatro delle favole rappresentative, New York University Press, New York. This essay on Political Implications of Commedia dell’Arte was written and submitted by user Jed1d1ah to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Mass Media And Politics

media in politics Media The media play an important role in American politics. It is the job of the media to keep citizens informed and to help shape their opinion’s on issues of the day. Reporters, however, look at reporting in different ways. Reporters like Michael Lewis report on what interest them. In â€Å"Trail Fever†, he finds himself attached to Senator John McCain of Arizona as he follows him on his 1996 Presidential campaign. In â€Å"A Time of Change†, New York Times editor Harrison Salisbury looks back on two heavily publicized political events of the 1960’s, the Kennedy assassination and the1968 Democratic National Convention. Salisbury’s tenure as editor â€Å"qualifies him to critique† the coverage of great events. Paul Glastris, on the other hand, discusses why certain political events, like Al Gore’s National Performance Review (NPR), do not get much media attention. All three articles show how the media is affected by what transpires in A merican politics, and in some instances how it affects those who report on them. In â€Å"Trail Fever,† Michael Lewis follows the Presidential election of 1996. He was uninspired by the two favorites, Senator Bob Dole from Kansas and President Bill Clinton. Lewis along the way ran into Senator John McCain from Arizona who was seeking the Republican Presidential nomination. Lewis was impressed by McCain’s strait forwardness. Lewis find McCain to be an honest man among many people who are not always telling the truth. Lewis questioned himself, â€Å"I know well enough how to interview someone who shades the truth . . . But I don’t know how to interview an honest man who occupies high political office (512). Lewis not only questions himself on who to do his job, but McCain gets in him enough that Lewis actually questions his own political affiliation. â€Å"The loner I hang around McCain the harder it is to fight the feeling that just maybe I’m Republican† (514). Eventua... Free Essays on Mass Media And Politics Free Essays on Mass Media And Politics media in politics Media The media play an important role in American politics. It is the job of the media to keep citizens informed and to help shape their opinion’s on issues of the day. Reporters, however, look at reporting in different ways. Reporters like Michael Lewis report on what interest them. In â€Å"Trail Fever†, he finds himself attached to Senator John McCain of Arizona as he follows him on his 1996 Presidential campaign. In â€Å"A Time of Change†, New York Times editor Harrison Salisbury looks back on two heavily publicized political events of the 1960’s, the Kennedy assassination and the1968 Democratic National Convention. Salisbury’s tenure as editor â€Å"qualifies him to critique† the coverage of great events. Paul Glastris, on the other hand, discusses why certain political events, like Al Gore’s National Performance Review (NPR), do not get much media attention. All three articles show how the media is affected by what transpires in A merican politics, and in some instances how it affects those who report on them. In â€Å"Trail Fever,† Michael Lewis follows the Presidential election of 1996. He was uninspired by the two favorites, Senator Bob Dole from Kansas and President Bill Clinton. Lewis along the way ran into Senator John McCain from Arizona who was seeking the Republican Presidential nomination. Lewis was impressed by McCain’s strait forwardness. Lewis find McCain to be an honest man among many people who are not always telling the truth. Lewis questioned himself, â€Å"I know well enough how to interview someone who shades the truth . . . But I don’t know how to interview an honest man who occupies high political office (512). Lewis not only questions himself on who to do his job, but McCain gets in him enough that Lewis actually questions his own political affiliation. â€Å"The loner I hang around McCain the harder it is to fight the feeling that just maybe I’m Republican† (514). Eventua...

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Financing Education in Developing Countries

Financing Education in Developing Countries How should developing countries finance university education? Explain your answer with cross reference to developed country experiences of financing University Education. Word Count: 4023 1. Introduction Education, its nature, purpose, its provision, and most importantly, its funding, are major topics of cultural and ideological debates which remain a central point of concern even today. Till the 1980s, the social democratic consensus, in England and New Zealand for example, considered education to be a public good, and therefore an indispensable service, provided by the state, to all citizens equally, without direct charge. The New Zealand Treasure writers, for example, argue that education doesnt belong to the marketplace. It should be considered a Natural Sphere and a public good which needs state intervention (The New Zealand Treasury, 1987). 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Theoretical Framework 2.1 Human Capital Theory Education is considered to be, both, a consumer and capital good (Okemakinde, 2008), because not only does it offer utility to a consumer, but also acts as input towards the production of other goods and services. It is, therefore, also considered to be highly effective and even necessary, to bring about an improvement in the production capacity of a country.   (Okemakinde, 2008) With the increase in economic development and structural change the requirement for skilled workers is increasing across all economies, resulting in an increasing demand for employees with higher education ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Authors including Okemakinde (2008 ) and Psacharopoulos (1986) consider formal education to be an investment in human capital (table 1). The human capital theory, thus, encourages investment in education both in developing and developed countries (I. Fà ¤gerlind, 2002). Figure 1 Returns to investment in education by country type and level (Psacharopoulos, 1986) Education and development policies have largely been based on the theoretical framework of the Human Capital Theory, which stresses on the high returns of education, in terms of productivity and efficiency of workers, and eventually economic development (Ozturk, 2001). 2.2 State funding and the need for alternatives Countries with socio-political ideologies consider education to be a public good and, consequently, should be free or considerably subsidised. This ideology claims the society to be the major beneficiary of higher education and asserts substantial taxes can be raised, progressive in nature, if there is political will and proper leadership. Such taxes will cover costs of education, allowing students, especially among the poor, to have equal access to education (Johnstone, 2003). Previously, higher education in most developing countries was predominantly financed and provided by the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986), such as majority of Sub-Saharan Africa (Teferra, 2013) (McGavin, 1991), India (Tilak, 1995) and China (Cheng, 1995).   However, Psacharopoulos (1986) argues such a system lacks sustainability, efficiency and quality. In fact, till the 1960s most universities in the UK were funded by the state. As seen in figure 2, the shift away from public funding has increased the participation rate in higher education in the UK (Haynes, 2003). Figure 2 Index of student numbers and public funding for higher education, 1980/1-1999/2000 (Haynes, 2003) A dominant theme of higher education throughout the world in the 1990s has been financial distress (Johnstone, 1998). The upsurge in the demand for financing higher education (Johnstone, 2003), coupled with constrained public budgets, has been a major challenge faced by governments in both, developing as well as developed countries (Woodhall 2007,   Akpochafo 2009).   However, as the number of students enrolled in higher education increased, the subsidies introduced when enrollments were low proved to be unsustainable (Woodhall, 2007). According to Woodhall (2007), with the expansion of higher education systems and the difficulty addressing the costs of higher education through public expenditure, the last twenty years have seen major changes in how higher education has been financed worldwide. These include; an introduction of tuition fees in countries where higher education was free, a substantial increase in tuition fees and a shift towards student loans (Woodhall, 2007). Therefore, parallel systems of financial assistance and cost sharing have been introduced so that students and parents arent burdened by the cost of university education and equality and accessibility isnt compromised (Johnstone, 1998). 3. Alternative Methods of Financing Higher Education 3.1 Tuition fees, selective scholarships and grants Most developed countries shifted costs of education from taxpayers to students, in the form of tuition fees, decades ago. Tuition and fees in public and private universities have established in the US for a long time (Johnstone, 1998).The tuition fees for UK full-time undergraduates at a university in the UK were paid from public funds until 1998, when tuition fee was introduced (Barr, 1998).   This trend is now being followed by developing countries as well (Johnstone 1998, Salmi 1998, Hans de Wit 2005). Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Jamaica have higher levels of student financing, similar to those seen in Ireland, the Republic of Korea, and Spain. (Hans de Wit, 2005) Figure 3   cost recovery at public universities in Latin America and the Caribbean (Hans de Wit, 2005) In countries like as Bolivia, Guatemala and Thailand, cost recovery is low, or nonexistent like Brazil and Argentina, as seen in figure 3. It is important to note the drop-out rates in these countries. According to Hans De Wit (2005), the annual number of graduates in Columbia has risen over time as opposed to Argentina, where education is publically funded and drop-out rate is higher (figure 4). Figure 4 annual number of students admitted to and graduated universities in Argentina and Columbia, 1982-2001 (Hans de Wit, 2005) Johnstone   (1998) notes higher education in Hungary faced problems like inefficiency, inequality and lack of responsiveness to the market economy. The public sector was financing higher education, spending 86% per capita GDP on higher education in 1993 alone. This, compared to 45% in OECD countries and 30% in Germany, is a considerably high amount. As a result, the need for a shift in cost burden was felt. In 1995 full-time students paid a monthly tuition fee of HUF 2000 in public universities, while part-time students paid up to HUF 8000 per month. In order to ensure equality in access, tuition fee was fully or partially waived, based on academic merit or financial need, for one-fifth of the students (Johnstone, 1998). Figure 5 Higher education in Hungary, 1990/91 versus 2006/07 (Marcucci, 2008) The state support per student was 40 % lower in 1998 than it had been in 1990. Reforms in 2005 recommend state funding for at least 35% of graduate students and 10% for doctoral students and in 2007 the Ministry of Education allotted 60% of its scholarship funds to merit based students and 35-40% to students in need of financial aid (Marcucci, 2008). This shift of the cost burden away from the government resulted in an increase in overall participation rate in Hungary (figure 5). According to Rosovsky (2001), during the 1990s, Makerere University in Uganda moved from a situation where the government covered all running costs and students did not pay for education to one where more than 70 % of the students paid, resulting in twice the amount of student enrolment and development of infrastructure. While imposing tuition fee is considered to shift the burden of financing higher education away from the government, it is argued that tuition fees or increasing it at a rapid rate might exclude potential students from disadvantaged families. (Johnstone, 2003), thus compromising on the access and equity of university education. 3.2 Loans and deferred payment schemes Financial aid such as loans, means-tested grants and selective scholarships are being introduced to preserve equity and access to university education (Psacharopoulos 1986, Johnstone 1998). Comparing grants and scholarships to loans and other types of deferred payments, the latter tends to relieve the burden of the cost of higher education on the government and raise the universitys revenue. Loans are also more likely to encourage the involvement of market forces, thus leading to efficiency and increased responsiveness of the university (Johnstone, 2003). Furthermore, the problem of exclusion associated with rising tuition fees can be met with the availability of loans and deferred payment schemes that dont consider the financial worth of students and their families (Johnstone, 2003). Student loans in Hungary, sponsored and guaranteed by the government, were introduced by a student loan company owned by the Hungarian State, Dià ¡khitel Kà ¶zpont, in 2001 (Marcucci, 2008). These loans cover tuition fees and living costs, are not means-tested and are available to all students enrolled in public and private higher education institutions in Hungary or the European Economic Area (ibid), thus ensuring equity and access. Other forms of deferred payments, where students bear a certain share of the cost burden and repay the amount gradually, once they have been employed, are also an alternative to recovering expenses. (Johnstone 1998, 2003). Examples of such payment schemes are graduate taxes, a concept never fully adopted (Barr, 1998), the income surtax implemented in Australia (Johnstone, 1998, 2003), and the drawdown pension payment system implemented to repay the student loan fund in Ghana (Johnstone, 2003). In the graduate tax system, the current cost burden incurred by the government for the support of education is not immediately relieved. However, over time, future income surtax payments, which are collectively (potentially) sizeable, albeit highly uncertain, shift the ultimate financial burden away from the government (Johnstone, 1998).   In this system, students incur low or no tuition and living costs. However, once they start earning they have to pay more income tax than they would have otherwise (ibid). The more one earns the more one pays back, thus argued to be progressive in nature and believed to prevent high debt rates among graduate students (BBC, 2010). The Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme launched in 1998 provided income contingent loans through the Higher Education Loan Programme to help students pay their tuition fee (Johnstone, 1998). Students start repaying the debt once their income is above a certain amount ($54,126 in 2015-2016).   The amount is readjusted on a yearly basis to reflect any changes in Consumer Price Index, thus maintaining the real value of the debt. Participation levels of domestic students in higher education have increased from 3.7% of the population between the ages of 15 to 64 in 1989 to 6.6% in 2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Figure 6 and 7 show a sharp increase in participation of students after income contingent loans, or graduate taxes, were introduced. Figure 6 Domestic higher education participation and bachelor or higher attainment 1989-2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015) Figure 7 University participation by SES: 1988-99 persons (Chapman, 2005) However, such schemes are also critiqued to be inefficient and politically costly (Johnstone, 2003). High earners might choose to work out of the country to avoid the graduate tax. Not only will this result in tax being evaded but also may lead to a brain drain (BBC, 2010). Other than student emigration, payments are often lost due to high defaults and lack of tax records. As Johnstone (1998) notes, applicability of graduate tax to developing countries depends on the degree to which the income tax system can be trusted. Additionally high costs associated with servicing and collecting make such schemes a less attractive option (Johnstone, 2003). According to Psacharopoulos (1986), loans encourage expenditure on education. If the returns to investment in university education are high, loans will help students invest in education, or human capital, consequently increasing the demand for higher education and the flow of private resources into the sector (Psacharopoulos, 1986). However, problems associated with lending loans, such as high collection costs and substantial cases of evasion, have discouraged the development of effective schemes for financing higher education in developing countries. Private banks find the risks and costs of lending too large to incur without charging a prohibitive interest rate, resulting in the governments providing or funding loan programs for students (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Repayment, especially in developing countries, is a major cause of concern associated with lending loans. According to Tilak (1995), only 5.9% of the investments made on student loan programmes in India during 1963-64 to 1987-88 were recovered. Furthermore, according to Johnstone (2003), the willingness to borrow and lend is important since students prefer their financial aid to be non-repayable 3.3   Expansion of private universities Since most developing countries have a highly centralised education sector, stringent rules and barriers restrict the operation and contribution of community run and private institutions. Easing these controls and decentralising management will allow mobilisation of private and local resources in the education sector, reducing the fiscal burden on the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986). The lack of available places in state universities led to the establishment of private universities (Oyebade, 2008). Romania had no private universities before 1989. Laws passed in 1990 resulted in the creation of 70 private institutions, almost all of them claiming university status and enrolling one-third of total enrolments in higher education (Johnstone, 1998). In 1981 in Chile the number of private and public universities charging tuition fees increased. In 1990, 52.4% of the total enrolment was provided for by private universities with no funding from the state. The state, previously incurring all costs, financed only 27% in 1990.   The increasing number of private universities helped meet the rising demand for university education, increased access to higher education and increased diversity, with no costs incurred by the government. However, this change also resulted in an increased tuition fee, falling quality and an uncontrolled rise in the number of private institutions (Johnstone, 1998). Oyebade (2008) finds private universities in Nigeria have increased from 3 institutions in 1999 to 24 in 2006. However, Oyebade adds, the cost of private university education and the poverty level may lead to problems like lack of access and equity. With 90 million people living in absolute poverty in Nigeria, the enrolment of students in private universities is effected considerably. Only one of the seven universities operational in 2005, were fully enrolled and the remaining six, despite being functional for over six years, were not. Private institutions are widely criticized for their lack of quality, as seen in Chile in 1990, and equity, as seen in Nigeria. Additionally, Johnstone (1998) adds, their sustainability is also questionable since their major source of revenue is tuition fees alone. 4. Entrepreneurial Activities Another alternative to finance higher education is generating income through entrepreneurial activities such as selling services, contracting research and renting out facilities. Exploring new ways of generating revenue is a great way for universities to improve quality, be more innovative and increase their relevance in the society by providing services in response to the societys needs (Hans de Wit, 2005). Universities in Mexico began to realise the need for internal revenue generation since government support was not likely to grow, consequently, turning towards entrepreneurial activities, involving faculty and students to raise extra income. Different departments began to generate revenue by providing services and specialised courses (Johnstone, 1998). According to Rena (2006), the University of Zambia and Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique have benefited from entrepreneurial activity in the form of improved capacity, information and revenue by establishing and linking internet nodes to local electronic networks and selling their subscriptions. Rena (2006) also adds Ghana and Nsukkas initiatives of consulting activities have proven to be a successful entrepreneurial activity. Ghana claimed a profit of 9% on total revenue of US$22700 in 1991 by providing consultancies through their consultancy centre. Nsukka indicated a profit of US$35,238 through its consultancies between 1982 and 1991. With an income of US$90,398, the consultants received 50% of the profits while the university received 30% and the department received 20%. In Makerere University in Uganda, where previously the government incurred all costs of education, recent entrepreneurial activity generated more than 30% of revenue (Rosovsky, 2001). Makerere has raised revenue through evening classes, commercially running their bookshop and bakery and establishing a consultancy bureau with staff where a portion of the generated revenue goes back into the university (ibid). Universities in China generated income through university enterprises, commissioned training programs and educational services, research (Cheng, 1995) and consultancies and logistic services (World Bank, 1997). According to World Banks report (1997) revenue generated from universities contribute to around 3.7% of total higher education revenue in China. In Shanghai, 50 universities ran approximately 700 enterprises with the total revenue of Y 1 billion in 1992 alone. Fudan Universitys entrepreneurial activities raised a total revenue of Y 20 million, out of which Y 2 million was invested back into the university (World Bank, 1997). Commissioned training, an effective way to earn additional revenue due to the rising demand for skill upgrading, was the second largest source of revenue, constituting around 2.3% of total higher education revenue.   Provision of educational services added up to about 1.1% of the total revenue. For example, the Department of Law of Peking University gene rated revenue by providing short training courses on recently implemented laws to employees belonging to public and private organisations. Income from research and consultancy added up to 1.3% of the revenue in 1992. Income from research in 36 national universities added up to Y1.12 billion. Additionally, logistical services such as running dining halls and hostels, although not highly lucrative, constituted around 0.7% of the revenue (ibid). According to Johnstone (1998), most risks associated with entrepreneurship in developing countries can be overcome by ensuring the activities are legalised and are supported with clear regulations and transparency and efficiency in management and procedures. Entrepreneurial activities, such as those carried out in China, Africa and Mexico, have not only benefitted the universities by raising extra revenue, but also benefitted the economy by increasing responsiveness to consumer needs. 5. Philanthropic: Philanthropic activities and initiatives targeted towards higher education can build up funds for scholarships and grants in public and private universities. Although many cultures and societies have a strong tradition of charity, however, these contributions often ignore higher education since it is either considered a private good or the responsibility of the government (Johnstone, 2003) The Aga Khan University and the Lahore University of Management Sciences, top ranking universities in Pakistan (HEC, 2016), are good examples of successful philanthropic initiatives, established and partly operated through private philanthropy (Rosovsky, 2001). Donations made to educational institutes in china are either used as merit scholarships for students, for faculty training overseas or construction of university buildings bearing the name of the donor (World Bank, 1997). However, most initiatives cannot depend on such financial generosity in developing countries (Rosovsky, 2001). Small provincial universities in underdeveloped, far-flung areas are rarely the recipients of such donations, augmenting the problem of rising disparity between universities and inequalities (World Bank, 1997). 6. Part-time employment for students According to Johnstone (2003), many American students hold jobs that require 20 to 40 hours a week. The encouragement and financial support of the Federal Work-Study Program, which partially subsidises education, and an economy that has an abundance of summer and term-time, part-time employment opportunities, has allowed students in the US to finance their education to a great extent. However, for this to be possible, a robust economy with widespread availability to such low-paying but readily available jobs is necessary. This feature may be largely absent in many countries, especially in developing countries (ibid). 7. Distance learning The trend of distance education has quickly spread across various countries including Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand (Johnstone, 1998). China, for example, has a network of provincial universities, and a television university, for distance learning programs and education (Johnstone, 1998). After the 1986 National Policy on Education in India, open and distance universities became a means of overcoming the problem inequity and unmet demand for higher education (Tilak, 1995). Approximately 3 million part-time students and 4 million full-time students in India were enrolled in correspondence courses (Johnstone, 1998), which are considered to generate revenue much above the correspondence costs (Tilak, 1995). Distance education and open learning programs can be an effective way of increasing access to university education at moderate costs (Johnstone, 1998). 8. Policy recommendations and conclusion Psacharopoulos (1986) posits generous scholarship schemes covering tuition costs and living expenses are not suitable in the long run because over time, as lower income students start to enrol in higher education, the cost of providing grants and scholarships will become a burden on the government. An increase in the role of private actors in the provision of, and contribution to, higher education is a   popular recommendation (Psacharopoulos   1986,   Johnstone 1998). However, some oversight and regulation may be needed to ensure standards are maintained fraudulent operators are kept at bay.   As Johnstone (1998) suggests, privatisation should be used as a tool to increase access to education, however, the government should continue to provide monitoring and regulation.   Additionally, a greater role of private and community-run schools will encourage competition, eventually leading to higher efficiency and managerial accountability (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Furthermore, Oyebade (2008) stresses on the need for effective student aid programmes, like loan facilities that have a repayment system that is easily traceable, so that students are able to incur the costs of private university education. Psacharopoulos (1986) emphasises on complementing the shift towards increased private financing with the provision student loans and limited selective scholarships, thus not compromising on access of education. Loans allow students to finance their current studies so that those with limited funds arent denied selection into higher education.   Furthermore, to further avoid selection bias and ensure access, the Psacharopoulos (1986) suggests the use of selective scholarships granted on the basis of financial need and academic merit. This will not only provide students with an incentive to perform better but also ease the financial burden of students belonging to poor families, thus minimising inequalities in access to university education. Johnstone (1998) suggests the introduction of private higher education supported through tuition fees, thus shifting the cost away from the government. He further suggests the introduction of loans and means-tested grants to ensure equity and access to higher education. Psacharopoulos (1986) recommends developing a credit market for higher education, where access to education can be augmented through widely available loans and deferred payment schemes. In countries where collection of loans poses a problem,   an alternative being used is repayment in kind through national service (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Educations institutions can raise significant income by offering various products and services such as training programs, marketing the expertise of faculty, carrying out laboratory tests, renting facilities, research and consultancies and centralised programs for teacher training (Rosovsky, 2001). In recent years, it has become possible and permissible for companies to pay for manpower supplied by higher education, for example commissioned training where employers pay a fee in return for a training course for their employees. Another means is rewarded allocation where institutions ask for a fee from the employers in return for the employment of a graduate. The fees being a compensation for the training cost of the manpower provided (Cheng, 1995). Policies encouraging such activities will not only generate additional revenue but encourage innovation and allow educational institutions to provide products and services the society needs. Lastly, part-time and seasonal jobs should be encouraged through state policies and programs, such as the Federal Work-Study Program in the US. Part-time jobs should be readily available for students so that they are able to finance their studies. Additionally, this method not only shifts the cost burden of higher education away from the students families but also decreases the dependency of students on other means of financing such as state funding, loans, scholarships or grants. References Department of Education and Training, 2015. Higher Education in Australia. Barr, N., 1993. The economics of the welfare state. Barr, N. A., 1998. Economics of the Welfare State. BBC, 2010. Tuition fees and graduate tax: Whats the difference?, s.l.: s.n. Bruce Chapman, C. R., 2005. The access implications of income-contingent charges forhigher education: lessons from Australia. Cheng, K.-m., 1995. A Chinese model of higher education? Lessons from reality. In: L. B. a. K. King, ed. Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education. s.l.:s.n. Grace, G., 1994. Education is a Public Good: On the Need to Resist the Domination of Economic Science . In: Education and the Market Place. s.l.:Psychology Press. Hans de Wit, I. C. J. J. G.-à . a. J. K., 2005. Higher Education in Latin America: The International Dimension. Haynes, D. G. a. M., 2003. Funding Higher Education in the UK: The Role of Fees and Loans. HEC, 2016. 5 th Ranking of Pakistani Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) 2015. I. Fà ¤gerlind, L. J. S., 2002. Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective. s.l.:s.n. Johnstone, B., 2003. Cost Sharing in Higher Education: Tuition, Financial Assistance, and Accessibility in a Comparative Perspective. Johnstone, D. B., 1998. The Financing and Management of Higher Education: A Status Report on Worldwide Reforms. Marcucci, M. S. a. P., 2008. Higher Education Finance and Cost-Sharing in Hungary. McGavin, P. A., 1991. Reform in the Financing of Higher Education in Papua New Guinea. Okemakinde, D. O. a. T., 2008. Human Capital Theory: Implications for Educational Development. Oyebade, G. I. a. S., 2008. From Public University Dominance to Private University Policy Initiatives in Nigeria: The Push and Pull Factors. Psacharopoulos, G., 1986. Financing Education in Developing Countries: An Exploration of Policy Options.. Rena, R., 2006. Higher Education in Africa A Case of Eritrea. Rosovsky, D. B. a. H., 2001. Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise.. Salmi, J., 1998. Strategy for Higher Education Development in Latin America: Executive Summary.. Teferra, D., 2013. Funding Higher Education in Africa: State,Trends and Perspectives. The New Zealand Treasury, 1987. Government Management: Brief to the Incoming Government 1987 Volume II Education Issues. Tilak, J. B., 1995. Higher education in India at a cross-roads. In: L. B. a. K. King, ed. Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education. s.l.:s.n. Woodhall, M., 2007. Funding Higher Education: The Contribution of Economic Thinking to Debate and Policy Development. World Bank, 1997. China Higher education reform. A World Bank country study..

Alcohol and its effects Essay -- essays research papers fc

Alcohol is a large part of American culture. All over the United States drinking is not only acceptable but a social norm from teenagers to adults. This is not only the case in the U.S., but all over the world, where some drinking ages are 18 and 19 years of age. In America specifically, alcohol has been around for centuries and is a large part of many social gatherings. Although this is the case now, in the early 1900’s during the prohibition period, all alcohol was banned and deemed illegal to possess. Even though illegal, the task was just too heavy and alcohol was too much a common practice for most Americans. As time went on the prohibition period ended and the laws were revoked, making it legal again to possess alcohol. The drinking related problems that were around during prohibition pale in comparison to the problems alcohol has caused since then. Many people wonder if kids are drinking earlier and earlier and they feel the drinking age should be raised. On the other hand many people are against raising the drinking age, mainly those whom would be affected by this decision, Americas youth. From its affect on society, including its appeal towards young adults, to the diseases it causes, the problems of alcohol abuse are widespread and in many forms.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is a known fact that many Americans drink alcohol on a weekly basis. Depending on the rate and volume of consumption, alcohol has many different effects on the human body. Light drinking has been proven not to be a problem, and is even considered to be healthy. A glass of Red wine once a day is known to be beneficial to the heart. It helps prevent coronary heart disease by reducing plaque deposits in the arteries surrounding the heart, preventing blood clotting, while also helping to dissolve clots that already exist (Rehm 1210). Moderate and heavy drinking is a different story though. When drinking to the point of moderate to heavy consumption, there is a greater risk for personal injury. Car accidents are not the only causes of injury when under the influence of alcohol. Many incidents of injury are directly related to alcohol consumption including violence, and accidental personal injury. This being said, drunk driving is the main cause of death associated w ith alcohol consumption (Rehm 1220). Researchers have found that with increased volumes of alcohol consumption on... ...  Ã‚  Health and Research World, 1991, 52. This article speaks of adolescent alcohol use and abuse. It examines the lack of research done on adolescent health issues and the current knowledge of the consequences of adolescent alcohol consumption. The article also presents strategies on how to inform and clarify the issues of adolescent alcohol abuse. Brad Mackay, â€Å"Alcohol Rivals Tobacco for Health Impact: WHO,† Canadian Medical   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Association, June 8, 2004, 1778. This article was short but provides a good comparison of alcohol and tobacco. The article presents good facts while giving good suggestions for solutions to the rising problems with alcohol. Jurgen Rehm, â€Å"The Relationship of Average Volume of Alcohol Consumption and Patterns of Drinking to Burden of Disease: An Overview,† Addiction Research Institute, May 8, 2003, 1209-1228. This article is aimed towards a large study to estimate the global burden of disease attributable to alcohol. The article tries to identify the relationships between average volume consumption, patterns of drinking, disease, and injury outcomes. The article also gives many numbers to back up its points.

Internal Control System Checklist

Internal Control System Checklist ACC/544 Monday December 03, 2010 Dr. YouKnew Abstract Internal control systems are purposed to aid in managing an array of risks, while monitoring the integrity and reliability of operational and financial data. Internal control systems ensure the proactively of audits, at the same time as serving to ensure that policies and procedures are enforced to protect the company’s financial information, limiting accounting inaccuracies and fraud. The following checklist is a tool to ensure that the objectives of internal control systems are met. Internal Control System ChecklistEthical Governance and Standards Ethical standards are the groundwork for internal control systems, where integrity is the basic principle. Business ethics show characteristics of acceptable business conduct, while ethics in internal control systems ensures that these standards are communicated, executed, reinforced, and monitored. When considering the following checklist for e valuating internal controls, three phases of the control evaluation are also applied. The three phases are understanding, assessment, and testing. I. Ethics & GovernanceYESNOComments Are the ethical standards exemplified by the board of directors?Are ethical standards reviewed with new employees either in orientation or by pamphlet? Are the ethical standards woven into employee evaluations? Are handbooks provided for ongoing review of ethical standards? Is there a process in place to review and correct bad ethical calls? Are ethical standards woven into business standards? Are fraudulent attempts in reporting communicated as intolerable to employees and management? Electronic Data Processing Electronic data processing guarantees against improper human intervention with computer processing and other transactions in a given organization.Computer programs help prevent access to certain information across departments and roles. Within the phases of the control evaluation the auditor wou ld want to ensure that each user completely understands his role and to protect the privacy of information given access. Ongoing assessment should be afforded to help each department head better manage user access and testing to ensure compliance. II. Electronic Data ProcessingYESNOComments Are policies in place to include reference check, security, and termination of employee security measures?Are the duties within the data processing system adequately segregated per role? (such as technical support, software developer, ect. ) Is the Electronic Data Processing system separate and independent from the operating and accounting departments? Is the Electronic Data Processing system such that it prevents duplicate documents from being introduced to the system? Are there adequate controls preventing changes to master files? Are there adequate controls over data entry to include supervision, current instructions, key verification of important fields and self check digits?Financial Reporti ng One of the three distinct objectives of internal control is to meet the responsibility of ensuring that financial statements are reliable. The term reliable involves the preparation of financial statements that are fairly presented in conformity with applicable financial reporting framework employed by management. The system of financial control over financial reporting therefore includes the design and implementation of policies and procedures necessary by managers to provide reasonable assurance that the ompany’s statements are presented in accordance with the basis of accounting. Evaluation of financial reporting within internal control system should place emphasis on testing and assessment. The following checklist addresses some key areas of testing and assessment of internal control of financial reporting. III. Financial ReportingYESNOComments Is the statement of financial position prepared monthly and reviewed by management and the finance committee? Are the responsi bilities for the final review and approval of financial reports segregated from those for the preparation of reports?Are monthly, semi-monthly and annual reports prepared comparing income and expenses with approved budget and reviewed by the management and the finance committee? Did the company employ a char of accounts? Are the tasks for maintaining the general ledger suitably segregated from those for the custody of assets? Is there a written accounting policy and procedural manuals distributed to appropriate personnel? Checklists mainly service as a tool that both managers and auditors can use to review a specific departments internal control and for ongoing purposes also.Checklists should be both drafted and assessments completed by management who are accountable for the business processes. When completing the checklist, simple yes or no responses prove a strong or weak internal control system where additional notes for improvement are observed. Multiple questions are needed to make the proper assessment of a control system. In conclusion, internal control checklists are integrated with control evaluations to provide the best information about the functionality of a system where changes or adjustments can be made.

The Golden Door to America essays

The Golden Door to America essays I wrote this paper for Political Life 1110 Should America Close the Golden Door? America has, is, and will always be a nation of immigrants: the great melting pot. In the years that have passed since Emma Lazarus poem was inscribed on the Statue of Liberty the golden door has seen times when it was open wide and times when it was closed shut to almost all immigrants. Many people tend to look at the present immigration problems as a purely modern dilemma. The truth is America has always struggled with the issue of immigration, both legal and illegal. Changing times however make it imperative that our government re-examine and adjust todays immigration laws to todays standards. Those standards however are not easily defined. All too often the issue of immigration is used as a political tool or is lost in heated moral debates. In any discussion about immigration you will have those who claim it is good for our nation and those who claim it is ruining the nation. More often than not the bottom line in any debate of this sort is money; will more or less immigration mean more or less money for those already in America. The moral debates come down to a question of who we are as a nation and how we want the rest of the world to perceive Americans. If this great country was forged and built by immigrants passing through the golden door , then how can this same country turn away new immigrants. The inscription on the Statue of Liberty invites all to enter, yet not all are allowed to enter. Immigration has become a selective process with many gray areas. Now Americans are faced with a new dilemma; the nation must decide not whether it is willing to accept new immigrants, but whether it can afford new immigrants. All new immigrant, both legal and illegal must be considered in this equation. Congress can attempt to ease the burden of legal immigration by passing restrictive laws and only allowing in those...

Free Essays on Freemarkets Case Analysis

Individual Case Analysis FREEMARKETS, Inc. Electronic Commerce Contents I. Introduction II. Description of the Company III. Description of the Industry IV. Description of FreeMarkets Auctions V. Analysis of Porter’s Five Forces VI. STEEP and SWOT Analysis VII. Business Model VIII. Target Markets IX. Company Core Competencies X. Company and Industry Financial Information XI. Key Company Challenges XII. Problem Statement XIII. Strategies and Recommended Actions XIV. Summary XV. References INTRODUCTION Electronic commerce (e-commerce) has traditionally been separated into two main categories: Business to Business (B2B) and Business to Consumer (B2C). B2B e-commerce is broadly defined as sales of goods and services between firms, transacted over the Internet. B2B e-commerce is by far the largest segment of the Internet economy, accounting for 92% of all electronic commerce worldwide and $450 billion of economic activity in the U.S. last year. B2B E-commerce is expected to grow at a compound annual rate of 61% and by 2004 will account for 25% of national GDP. The success of e-commerce generally – and B2B e-commerce in particular – stems from its ability to make markets more efficient in an economic sense. B2B has been successful in creating more efficient markets by reducing market risks caused by informational asymmetries and by adding more liquidity to markets. Added liquidity is a result of an electronic market’s ability to aggregate buyers and sellers at a very low cost, especially when they are spread out across a large geographic area. A more liquid market tends to drive prices closer to cost, which in turn forces sellers and producers to become more efficient. For example, a firm’s procurement department can use B2B exchanges to instantaneously receive and compare price quotes from hundreds or even thousands of potential suppliers. ... Free Essays on Freemarkets Case Analysis Free Essays on Freemarkets Case Analysis Individual Case Analysis FREEMARKETS, Inc. Electronic Commerce Contents I. Introduction II. Description of the Company III. Description of the Industry IV. Description of FreeMarkets Auctions V. Analysis of Porter’s Five Forces VI. STEEP and SWOT Analysis VII. Business Model VIII. Target Markets IX. Company Core Competencies X. Company and Industry Financial Information XI. Key Company Challenges XII. Problem Statement XIII. Strategies and Recommended Actions XIV. Summary XV. References INTRODUCTION Electronic commerce (e-commerce) has traditionally been separated into two main categories: Business to Business (B2B) and Business to Consumer (B2C). B2B e-commerce is broadly defined as sales of goods and services between firms, transacted over the Internet. B2B e-commerce is by far the largest segment of the Internet economy, accounting for 92% of all electronic commerce worldwide and $450 billion of economic activity in the U.S. last year. B2B E-commerce is expected to grow at a compound annual rate of 61% and by 2004 will account for 25% of national GDP. The success of e-commerce generally – and B2B e-commerce in particular – stems from its ability to make markets more efficient in an economic sense. B2B has been successful in creating more efficient markets by reducing market risks caused by informational asymmetries and by adding more liquidity to markets. Added liquidity is a result of an electronic market’s ability to aggregate buyers and sellers at a very low cost, especially when they are spread out across a large geographic area. A more liquid market tends to drive prices closer to cost, which in turn forces sellers and producers to become more efficient. For example, a firm’s procurement department can use B2B exchanges to instantaneously receive and compare price quotes from hundreds or even thousands of potential suppliers. ...

Google Inc. use of the BCG Matrix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Google Inc. use of the BCG Matrix - Essay Example The paper presents an overview of Google and its core businesses, and goes on to undertake a strategic audit of the company making use of the BCG Matrix as well as the SWOT Analysis and the PESTEL analysis in a strategic audit aimed at identifying strategic issues facing the company and at making recommendations to get the company on a path to growth. The paper presents a critical analysis of the main issues that were surfaced in the strategic audit, and also undertakes a critical assessment of the BCG Matrix itself. The critical assessment of the BCG Matrix surveys various perspectives on concept, undertaking a comparison and contrast of those perspectives, and weighing in on the relevance of the BCG Matrix in modern times and in the present context of its use to undertake the strategic audit on Google. This latter exercise also looks at the suitability of the BCG Matrix versus other tools and frameworks for undertaking a strategic audit in general and for undertaking a strategic au dit of Google (Taggart and Harding, 1998; Google, 2013; Reuters, 2013). Finally, the critical audit and the critical assessment of the main issues that were surfaced in that critical audit, together with the critical assessment of the BCG Matrix itself, are all used to come up with strategy recommendations for Google to grow moving forward. ... e from the twin perspectives of concepts and frameworks used on the one hand and Google’s business perspective on the other (Google, 2013; Reuters, 2013; Smith, 2002; Spee and Jarzabkowski, 2009; Ioana, Mirea and Balescu, 2009; Doole and Lowe, 2008, pp. 282-283; Armstrong, 2003; Hall and Saias, 1980, pp. 160-161; Zeithaml and Zeithaml, 1984). II. Company Overview Google Inc. is a technology company that operates on a global scale. The company details itself as a firm that focuses on key business segments and areas of technology, and these revolve around search, hardware products, products for the enterprise, operating systems for mobil e and other computing platforms, and online advertising. Google is present in more than 50 countries and territories, and reaches its audience through the use of 100 different languages around the world. The hardware business is primarily represented by Motorola, which caters to two distinct business segments consisting of the Home segment and the Mobile segment. Mobile is about mobile devices and corollary services and products tied to mobile. Android is the popular mobile computing platform that Google owns and licenses for free to device manufacturers. The Home business segment on the other hand keys in on digital television and the use of related access devices and services. Its Enterprise business consists in the provision of software platforms and services centered on Google Apps, Google Search, Google Maps, Google Earth, and a host of related platforms and cloud-based services that cater to vertical industries such as education, government, and business.

German Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

German - Essay Example It was situated just next to the great Jewish monument. The Roma / Sinti memorial is also of a more modest scale as compared to the Jewish one which is of the size of a football field. It is located to the north-eastern part of large Berlin’s center and is not far from the vast memorial for the infamed murdered Jews of Europe. It was a good idea to have different monuments or memorials for the different affected groups. They suffered different causes like racism, beliefs as well as sexuality. They also represented people of different origins. The Germans, in particular, also suffered as far as the gay holocaust is concerned. Even the gay Nazis were murdered. This difference had to be observed in order to accurately pair the remembrance of their suffering to their true identities. The ort der information or the underground information was a brilliant idea conceived by Peter Eisenman together with Dagmar. It is this site that blends history and memory. It serves both as a site of memory and that of history, both informational and commemorative (Crownshaw and Rowland 86). The naming of the monument in the memory of the killed Jews absolves the other Jews who perished in the Germanys dark ages from the conditions they were subjected to in the concentration camps. Some died of diseases and others even committed suicide. Logically, in one way or another, they all died in the times of the holocaust from the Nazis set conditions, unfair laws, or even maltreatment. The more favorable and inclusive for all Jews would be â€Å"Memorial to the perished Jews under Nazism†. The United States of America never perpetrated the Holocaust. Actually, it was the U.S. that assisted in ending the holocaust. The genocide of the native Red Indians and other atrocities that were committed during the slavery period took place closer home, and therefore are more connected to the United States. For this reason, the establishment of the Holocaust